High-coherence semiconductor light sources

ABSTRACT

A laser resonator includes an active material, which amplifies light associated with an optical gain of the resonator, and passive materials disposed in proximity with the active material. The resonator oscillates over one or more optical modes, each of which corresponds to a particular spatial energy distribution and resonant frequency. Based on a characteristic of the passive materials, for the particular spatial energy distribution corresponding to at least one of the optical modes, a preponderant portion of optical energy is distributed apart from the active material. The passive materials may include a low loss material, which stores the preponderant optical energy portion distributed apart from the active material, and a buffer material disposed between the low loss material and the active material, which controls a ratio of the optical energy stored in the low loss material to a portion of the optical energy in the active material. A Vernier grating and tuning mechanism can be used to tune the low-noise laser.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/113,267 filed on Feb. 6, 2015, the disclosure of which is incorporated by reference in its entirety. The present application is also a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/319,466 filed on Jun. 30, 2014, which, in turn, claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/842,770 filed on Jul. 3, 2013, the disclosures of both of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT GRANT

The present Application relates to an invention that was made with support of the United States government under contract no. W911NF-10-1-0103 awarded by the U.S. Army Research Office and under contract no. HR0011-12-C-0006 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) of the U.S. Department of Defense. The U.S. government has certain rights in an invention related to the present Application.

TECHNICAL FIELD

Embodiments of the present invention relate generally to light sources. More particularly, example embodiments of the present invention relates to high-coherence semiconductor light sources.

BACKGROUND

A distributed feedback (DFB) laser may be disposed within a semiconductor device such as a laser diode (LD). An active region of the DFB LD may comprise a diffraction grating to provide optical feedback for the laser over a narrow wavelength band, which may be selected according to the pitch with which the grating is fabricated. The narrow output spectrum characteristic of DFB lasers gave rise to their usefulness in optical communications, in which information is exchanged over networks of optical fiber and other transmission media. Conventional semiconductor distributed feedback lasers have been used as light sources for powering the fiber-optic based internet and related networks since the mid-1970s. Since then, volumes of network traffic have exploded, along with concomitant demand for higher bandwidth and increased data rates.

For example, the explosive growth of the internet over the last 20 years has created a geometrically increasing demand for bandwidth. Existing communication approaches typically meet this bandwidth demand by an optical fiber network with multiple channels. Using dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) techniques, each of the multiple channels comprises an optical wavelength different from an optical wavelength of each of the other channels.

Information is transmitted over DWDM networks at 1 bit per pulse by modulating the intensity of the light source (e.g., on/off keying) at speeds up to 10 Gb/s. The upper data rate is typically limited by optical impairments, which are induced or introduced by the optical fiber transmission media. The full utilization of the available number of channels in the optical spectrum along with the bound on modulation rates has instigated the search for alternative information transmission schemes to meet the ever increasing bandwidth demand.

The growing demand for transmitting information at ever-higher data rates has led to the development of coherent communication, in which information is encoded on an optical wave using principally a modulation of its phase. Quantum-based limitations related to their inherent phase or temporal coherence characteristics limit the phase stability of conventional DFB lasers. The channel capacity of conventional DFB lasers is thus insufficient for handling the demands imposed by the migration of networks to coherent communication.

Improved coherence has thus been long sought in semiconductor DFB lasers. Previous approaches have used elongation of the laser cavities, multiple phase-shifts for the engineering of longitudinal modes therein, optimization of the active laser medium, e.g. strained QW (quantum well), and wavelength detuning.

The spectral linewidths achieved using such techniques in commercial and other conventional or state of the art lasers however remain persistently high. For example, spectral linewidths of conventional DFB lasers remains above 100 kHz, and this linewidth value itself reflects a narrowness that may be attained only using high pump currents. Moreover, linewidths at this level remain too high to satisfy the demands presented by multi-phase coherent communication and other useful applications.

Some fiber based lasers, which have linewidths below 1 kHz, and external cavity lasers (ECL), which have linewidths below 10 kHz, have high coherence characteristics. However, they typically have bulky and complex structures, which render them incompatible with the physical scaling demands of growing networks.

Contemporary optical communication networks are powered extensively by semiconductor lasers, including conventional DFB LDs, because of the benefits of their small size, high power output, high efficiency, low cost, and potential integration opportunities with associated electronic circuits. Due, however, to their significant phase noise characteristics, primarily of intrinsic quantum mechanical origin, conventional semiconductor lasers, including typical conventional DFB LDs, are typically incapable of meeting the stringent spectral purity requirements to ultra-high-speed communication networks.

A semiconductor distributed feedback laser capable of handling the requirements imposed by coherent communication networks, without using DWDM would thus be useful. A distributed feedback laser free of the quantum-based phase or temporal coherence characteristics inherent in conventional DFB lasers would also thus be useful. It would further be useful to improve significantly the phase or temporal coherence characteristics and the channel capacity of a distributed feedback laser relative to conventional DFB LDs.

Approaches described in this section may, but not necessarily, have been conceived or pursued previously. Unless otherwise indicated, it should not be assumed that any approaches discussed above include any alleged prior art merely by any such discussion. Not dissimilarly, any issues discussed in relation to any of these approaches should not be assumed to have been recognized in any alleged prior art merely based on any such discussion above.

SUMMARY

Example embodiments of the present invention relate to a resonator for a laser device. The laser resonator has at least one active material for amplifying light associated with an optical gain of the resonator. The laser resonator also has one or more passive materials disposed in proximity with the at least one active material wherein the resonator oscillates over one or more optical modes, each of the one or more optical modes corresponding to a particular spatial energy distribution and resonant frequency, and wherein, based on a characteristic of the one or more passive materials, for the particular spatial energy distribution corresponding to at least one of the one or more optical modes, a preponderant portion of optical energy is distributed apart from the active material.

The one or more passive materials may include a low loss material for storing optical energy of the preponderant portion distributed apart from the active material. The one or more passive materials may also include a buffer material disposed between the low loss material and the at least one active material for controlling a ratio of the optical energy stored in the low loss material to a portion of the optical energy in the active material. The buffer material may include a material like silicon dioxide, which has a low refractive index. The active material may include a III-V material and the low loss material may include silicon. The passive materials may be disposed in layers, at least one of which is bonded (e.g., with wafer bonding) with a layer with active material.

The low loss passive material may be configured with a pattern of holes. The configured hole pattern may determine an oscillation frequency, an output rate and an output mode profile of the resonator and deters spontaneous emission therefrom. The pattern of holes may have a one-dimensional (1D) configuration, such as a linear or near linear aspect. The configured pattern of holes may include an approximately uniform array of holes of approximately uniform size, and a defect (e.g., related to the approximate uniform size) disposed within (e.g., over, in or nearly in a center area of) the approximately uniform array of holes.

Example embodiments of the present invention also relate to laser devices with such resonators disposed on semiconductor dies. The laser devices may have a heat sink component attached to the semiconductor die and configured therewith for removing heat generated in the active material from the resonator of the laser device. The heat sink may be attached to the semiconductor die with an epitaxial-side-down configuration in relation to the active material of the laser resonator (or in other configurations). The laser device may also have a detector component attached to the semiconductor die and configured therewith for determining an output characteristic of the laser resonator. The output characteristic may relate to measuring a frequency noise related component of the resonator output, which may include computing a high frequency noise spectrum of the resonator output and suppressing measurement of low frequency fluctuations of the resonator output.

In some embodiments, the present disclosure describes a laser resonator comprising: at least one active material providing optical gain for amplifying light within the resonator; one or more passive materials disposed in proximity with the at least one active material, wherein the one or more passive materials comprise: a low loss material layer configured to store optical energy of a preponderant portion distributed apart from the active material, a mode control layer disposed between the at least one active material and the low loss material layer, wherein: the low loss material layer or the mode control layer or both the low loss material layer and the mode control layer comprise tunable gratings, the mode control layer is configured to control a ratio of the optical energy stored in the low loss material to a portion of the optical energy in the active material the laser resonator device oscillates over one or more optical modes, each of the one or more optical modes corresponding to a particular spatial energy distribution and resonant frequency, based on a characteristic of the one or more passive materials, for the particular spatial energy distribution corresponding to at least one of the one or more optical modes, a preponderant portion of optical energy is distributed apart from the active material, and a thickness of the mode control layer is configured to transversely distribute the preponderant portion of the optical energy apart from the active material and maintain an evanescent field in the active material.

Lasing refers herein to generating coherent light over one or more infrared, visible, ultraviolet, etc. wavelengths by a laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) process. Example embodiments of the present invention relate to a method for lasing, which includes amplifying light associated with an optical gain in at least one active material of an optical resonator, and distributing spatial energy within the resonator, in which one or more passive materials are disposed in proximity with the at least one active material, in which the resonator oscillates over one or more optical modes, each of the one or more optical modes corresponding to a particular spatial energy distribution and resonant frequency, and in which, based on a characteristic of the one or more passive materials, for the particular spatial energy distribution corresponding to at least one of the one or more optical modes, a preponderant portion of optical energy is distributed apart from the active material.

The one or more passive materials may include a low loss material for storing optical energy of the preponderant portion distributed apart from the active material, as well as a buffer material, which is disposed between the low loss material and the at least one active material and effectively controls a ratio of the optical energy stored in the low loss material to a portion of the optical energy in the active material. Example embodiments relate to lasers, e.g., systems, devices products, etc. for sustaining such lasing processes, as well as to methods for fabricating them.

Example embodiments may thus implement a high-Q, separated function semiconductor laser (high-Q SFL), which is characterized by a phase coherence with an order of magnitude improvement over high quality conventional DFB lasers. For example, an embodiment of the present invention is implemented with a high-Q SFL having a spectral linewidth of 18 Kilohertz (kHz) at the commonly used optical communication wavelength of 1.55 micrometers (μm).

An example embodiment of the present invention is implemented using optical phase and/or quadrature amplitude modulation to encode information over a complex 2D phase plane. The use of optical phase/quadrature amplitude modulation (PQAM) may thus obviate DWDM.

The example implementation may use coherent detection (CD) at a receiver to recover the full field of an optical signal thus encoded at a transmitter, including the amplitude and phase of the signal. Coherent detection allows an embodiment of the present invention to correct or compensate for fiber-induced optical impairments, such as chromatic and polarization mode dispersion, using digital signal processing (DSP) techniques. The example implementation may thus exceed the capability of the typically-used direct detection approaches.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Example embodiments of the present invention are described below in relation to a high-coherence semiconductor light source. The description below refers to the following drawings, which comprise a part of the specification of the present Application. In the drawings:

FIG. 1 depicts example constellation diagrams representing modulation schemes of various spectral efficiencies;

FIG. 2 depicts an example of noise effects in phase modulation, according to an embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 3 depicts a phasor representation of an example spontaneous emission event, according to an embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 4 depicts a schematic cross-section of a first example hybrid Si/III-V Laser, according to an embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 5 depicts a top view of an example high-Q photonic resonator, according to an embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 6 depicts a schematic cross-section of a second example hybrid Si/III-V Laser, according to an embodiment of the present invention, according to an embodiment of the present invention;

FIGS. 7A and 7B depict a representation of quantum noise effects on linewidth;

FIG. 8A depicts a first example heat dissipation configuration, according to an embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 8B depicts a second example heat dissipation configuration, according to an embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 9 depicts a flowchart for an example fabrication process, according to an embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 10 depicts a cross-section of an example High-Q SFL device, according to an embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 11A depicts a perspective of the example High-Q SFL device, according to an embodiment of the present invention;

FIGS. 11B-11C depict an example grating component of the High-Q SFL device, according to an embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 12A depicts a top view of the geometry of the example grating component, according to an embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 12B depicts a spatial band structure of an example High-Q hybrid resonator plotted against a transmission spectrum simulated in relation thereto, according to an embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 12C depicts a dispersion diagram of an example local unit cell, according to an embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 12D depicts an intensity profile simulated for the longitudinal field of an example High-Q hybrid resonator, according to an embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 12E depicts a Fourier component amplitude distribution of the longitudinal field of an example High-Q hybrid resonator, according to an embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 12F depicts an emission spectrum simulated for the example High-Q SFL, according to an embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 13A depicts optical power plotted against pump current over various operating temperatures, according to an example embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 13B depicts light (optical power output) plotted against pump current over various operating temperatures, according to an example embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 13C depicts optical spectra of example High-Q SFLs at a given pump current and at a certain temperature, according to an embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 13D depicts optical spectra of example High-Q SFLs of various grating periods at a given driving current and a certain temperature, according to an embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 14 depicts a frequency noise spectrum of an example High-Q SFL, according to an embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 15A depicts a Schawlow-Townes linewidth of an example High-Q SFL as a function of the offset pump current from a threshold, according to an embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 15B depicts a distribution of Schawlow-Townes linewidths as a function of their respective emission wavelengths, for example High-Q SFL devices implemented over multiple laser bars fabricated on several separate semiconductor chips, according to an embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 16A depicts a modal energy distribution typical of conventional lasers; and,

FIG. 16B depicts an example modal energy distribution for a laser, according to an embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 17 illustrates an extension of the quantum noise control concept to a tunable SGDBR laser; paragraphs have to be increased by one from now on.

No scale applies in these drawings unless and except as specifically stated, as with reference to the vertical axis and the horizontal axis shown in Figure (FIG. 7A, etc.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Laser resonators are described herein in relation to example high-coherence semiconductor light sources. Example embodiments are described in relation to a high-Q separated function hybrid laser. In the following description, for the purposes of explanation, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the present invention. It will be apparent, however, that embodiments of the present invention may be practiced without these specific details. In other instances, well-known structures and devices are not described in exhaustive detail, in order to avoid unnecessarily obfuscating, obstructing, obscuring, or occluding aspects of embodiments of the present invention.

Overview

A laser resonator includes an active material, which amplifies light associated with an optical gain of the resonator, and passive materials disposed in proximity with the active material. The resonator oscillates over one or more optical modes, each of which corresponds to a particular spatial energy distribution and resonant frequency. Based on a characteristic of the passive materials, for the particular spatial energy distribution corresponding to at least one of the optical modes, a preponderant portion of optical energy is distributed apart from the active material. The passive materials may include a low loss material, which stores the preponderant optical energy portion distributed apart from the active material, and a buffer material disposed between the low loss material and the active material, which controls a ratio of the optical energy stored in the low loss material to a portion of the optical energy in the active material.

Optical Phase/Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

An example embodiment of the present invention is implemented using optical phase and/or quadrature amplitude modulation to encode information over a complex 2D phase plane. The use of optical phase/quadrature amplitude modulation (PQAM) may obviate (or be combined with) conventional DWDM approaches and allows the use of example embodiments in coherent communications and other applications. FIG. 1 depicts example constellation diagrams representing modulation schemes of various spectral efficiencies.

Encoding information in the phase of the optical carrier as opposed to only its amplitude, allows for increase in spectral efficiency (bits/Hz) and thus more efficient utilization of the available spectrum. For example, modulating an optical signal according to its intensity allows each amplitude value, e.g., ‘on’ or ‘off’, to represent only a single data bit e.g., ‘0’ or ‘1’, respectively.

Somewhat more spectral efficiency may be achieved using QPSK (quadrature phase shift keying) and 8-PSK modulation schema, which respectively allow each symbol disposed over the complex plane to represent two (2) symbols (e.g., 00, 01, 10, 11), and three (3) symbols (e.g., 000, 001, 010, 000, etc.). In a 16-QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation) scheme, four (4) bits can be transmitted per pulse, which represents a quadrupling of bandwidth at a given modulation (baud) rate over conventional intensity modulation.

Commercial communication links may now operate at data rates of 100 Gb/s per channel based on dual polarization, quadrature phase shift keying (DP-QPSK), and “next-generation” lines with rates of 400 Gb/s lines are now under development. Example embodiments of the present invention may be implemented using higher-level modulation formats (e.g. 16, 64, 256-QAM). Coupled with the use of DWDM techniques, an example embodiment may be used to provide Tb/s-scale network bandwidths.

Raising the spectral purity of laser sources allows them to transmit information using the more efficient phase constellations of higher complexity. However, spontaneous emission and other such quantum noise effects may scatter, spread or smear phase based signal information. Such inherent phase noise characteristics causes a spread in the phase of the symbols transmitted therewith. FIG. 2 depicts an example of noise effects in phase modulation. As seen in FIG. 2, phase noise may degrade the certainty with which the phase of a carrier may be recovered at a receiver. Thus, broader phase noise spreads result in higher detection the ambiguity, which may be quantified as a bit error rate (BER).

Example embodiments of the present invention relate to semiconductor lasers implemented on hybrid Si/III-V platforms having an extremely narrow quantum linewidth, relative to conventional DFB LDs, of below 20 kHz and below 5 kHz and may thus be used in ultra-high speed optical communication networks and other applications that demand a high degree of coherence, such as interferometric sensing and laser ranging (LIDAR) over long distances.

Moreover, the hybrid platform thus implemented is compatible with the Si-based CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor) process, which enables on-chip integration with electronics and other optical passives and thus allows fabrication of complete, small factor devices such as the SFPx, (small factor pluggable) modules used in many telecom applications. The compactness and relatively simple structure of the lasers implemented by embodiments of the present invention provides high scalability and allows their deployment in large numbers on one semiconductor chip, which external cavity and fiber lasers cannot achieve.

Example Coherence Improvements

The hybrid platforms also enable generating narrow linewidths very close to threshold based on the quality factor of the resonator and thus have lower power consumption relative to conventional DFB LDs in which narrow linewidths are available typically by increasing pump currents. Notwithstanding high pump currents however, the coherence levels achievable with conventional (e.g., commercially available) DFB lasers are typically limited to linewidths (Δν)_(ST) in excess of 100 kHz. This limitation of conventional DFB LDs appears to be due to high cavity losses and spontaneous emission, which may be the fundamental mechanism by which coherence is degraded.

Example embodiments of the present invention relate to a high-Q separated function hybrid laser, which is implemented with an ultra low loss resonator, deterrence of spontaneous emission and integration techniques, which relative to conventional approaches, improve coherence (e.g., linewidth) by over an order of magnitude, and are thus capable of use in coherent communications at Tb/s data rates, advanced sensing networks, and other useful applications.

Frequency noise is the time derivative of a laser's phase noise φ_(n)(t). Semiconductor lasers are characterized by a frequency noise spectrum that has two components, one component related to a lower frequency component and another component related to a higher frequency.

At low frequency offsets, e.g., below approximately 1 MHz (<˜1 MHz), the frequency noise has a 1/f-type of spectrum. This 1/f-related noise comprises largely technical noise of origins not yet well explained. Due to the low-frequency nature of this technical noise component, it manifests itself as a relatively slow jitter in the oscillation frequency of the laser.

At higher frequency offsets (e.g., >1 MHz), the frequency noise is characterized by a white noise spectrum of quantum origin, as described below. This quantum white noise spectrum directly translates to a Lorentzian field lineshape.

Coherent communication and coherent sensing, LIDAR and related applications typically use measurements over short time scales (<1 μs). The duration of a symbol in high-speed communication network is ˜1 ns. Interferometric delays and measurement times in sensing and LIDAR applications, etc. are <1 μs. These measurements are therefore primarily impacted by the (high-frequency) white noise spectrum of the semiconductor laser frequency noise.

Moreover, the low-frequency 1/f noise can be compensated externally using a feedback loop. For example, Pound-Drever-Hall locking to a stable cavity, or coherence cloning using an optical phase-locked loop may be used for external compensation over such low frequency noise. Example embodiments of the present invention relate to addressing the quantum white noise spectrum, and its associated Lorentzian linewidth, which comprise a more fundamental and critical issue.

A fundamental source of phase noise in a semiconductor laser is quantum mechanical in origin. The phase noise results from spontaneously emitted photons in the active region of the laser. With every spontaneous emission event, a photon of random phase is added to the laser field. Under the effect of a large number of spontaneous emission events, the complex field of the laser may undergo random walking (e.g., phase diffusion) in the phase plane. FIG. 3 depicts a phasor representation of an example spontaneous emission event, according to an embodiment of the present invention.

For a semiconductor laser, the phase excursion accumulated over a measurement time interval τ can be most fundamentally expressed according to Equation 1, below.

$\begin{matrix} {{\langle{{{\Delta\varphi}(\tau)}}^{2}\rangle} = \frac{N_{th}R_{sp}}{\left( {2\overset{\_}{n}} \right)\left( {1 + a^{2}} \right)\tau}} & (1) \end{matrix}$

In Equation 1, R_(sp) represents the spontaneous emission rate into the lasing mode, N_(th) the carrier density at threshold, n the average number of coherent photons in the same mode, and α the amplitude-phase coupling coefficient (also known as “Henry factor”). The frequency noise associated with this type of quantum phase noise has uniform, or white, spectral distribution. This white noise spectrum results in a Lorentzian field lineshape, with a Schawlow-Townes spectral linewidth, as shown in Equation 2, below.

$\begin{matrix} {\left( {\Delta \; v} \right)_{ST} = \frac{N_{th}R_{sp}}{\left( {4\pi \; \overset{\_}{n}} \right)\left( {1 + a^{2}} \right)}} & (2) \end{matrix}$

The phasor diagram shown in FIG. 3 represents the effect of one spontaneous emission event on the complex electric field of the laser. The constellation of “dots” depicted in FIG. 3 traces an example random walk of the field in the complex plane resulting from a large number of independent spontaneous emission events.

Example embodiments of the present invention relate to a semiconductor laser with significant linewidth reduction over conventional DFB LDs. Lasers are implemented using hybrid Si/III-V integration, a high-Q laser cavity design, spontaneous emission control, and efficient heat management in the hybrid Si/III-V platforms.

To implement these hybrid high-Q lasers with control over spontaneous emission and effective heat management, example embodiments of the present invention relate to:

(1) a robust measurement technique to accurately determine the frequency noise spectrum of semiconductor laser, particularly at very low noise levels; and

(2) a high-Q separated function Si/III-V laser with high-coherence characteristics.

A semiconductor laser prototype is thus implemented with improved linewidths, output power of at least 100 μW and side mode suppression ratio (SMSR) of at least 40 dB.

Moreover, a fabrication process is thus implemented that may enable further linewidth reduction, e.g., to <5 kHz, as well as wafer-level scaling. While not an unrelated legacy processes for fabricating of hybrid, Si/III-V lasers may also be scalable (e.g., to full 2-inch wafers), improved process cost-effectiveness, and throughput may thus be provided in relation thereto. Example embodiments of the present invention use spontaneous emission control and thermal management, and develop scalable high-yield fabrication processes and robust measurement techniques as described herein.

Example Hybrid Silicon/III-V Integration

Heterogeneous integration of III-V semiconductors with silicon allows the incorporation of light emission and other active functionalities on a silicon platform. In contrast to legacy integration techniques however, example embodiments of the present invention replace a portion of highly absorbing template III-V material with Si (e.g., using wafer bonding), which achieves a very low loss optical platform. Template III-V semiconductors used for conventional laser diodes are about three orders of magnitude more absorbing than the intrinsic Si used as described and claimed herein. The higher absorbance of III-V semiconductors is due primarily to heavy doping in contact and cladding regions.

FIG. 4 depicts a schematic cross-section of a first example hybrid Si/III-V Laser, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the hybrid Si/III-V platform thus implemented, the lasing mode is configured to reside mostly in the low absorbance Si region. The hybrid Si/III-V platform thus allows for the separation and independent optimization of two significant functions of laser operation, (1) photon generation, and (2) photon storage. In example embodiments, efficient carrier injection and photon generation is conducted through the III-V semiconductor portion of the hybrid, while the vast majority of the coherent photons are stored in the low loss silicon portion of the hybrid.

Photon storage may be quantified by a photon cavity lifetime τ_(ph) or, equivalently, the cavity quality factor Q=ω_(o)τ_(ph). Reducing the losses in the laser cavity has a two-fold effect on the laser's quantum noise linewidth. First, the cavity loss reduction increases the average number of coherent photons n stored in the cavity at a given injection level. Second, the cavity loss reduces the carrier density N_(th) at threshold, which reduces the concentration of carriers contributing to spontaneous emission. Given the relationship of n, and N_(th) and cavity loss, or equivalently on the cavity Q, the laser linewidth may be scaled according to Equation 3, below.

$\begin{matrix} {\left. \left( {\Delta \; v} \right)_{ST} \right.\sim\frac{1}{Q^{2}}} & (3) \end{matrix}$

An example embodiment is operable for reducing the linewidth by maximizing the cavity quality factor Q.

The total cavity quality factor Q of a hybrid Si/III-V laser can be expressed according to Equation 4, below.

$\begin{matrix} {\frac{1}{Q} = {\frac{\Gamma}{Q_{{III}\text{-}V}} + \frac{1 - \Gamma}{Q_{Si}}}} & (4) \end{matrix}$

In Equation 4, Q_(III-V), Q_(Si) represent quality factors associated with the optical losses in the III-V region, and in the Si region of the hybrid cavity, respectively. Further, Γ represents the mode confinement factor in the III-V region. Losses in the III-V region are high; dominated by absorption. Example embodiments of the present invention increase the total cavity quality factor Q by implementing device structures in which only a very small fraction of the mode resides in the lossy III-V region.

Example High-Q Cavity Design

The hybrid integration thus implemented improves cavity Q significantly and reduces linewidth substantially, which improves coherence. As seen with reference to Equation 4, as more of the light is confined in Si portion of the hybrid structure, losses in Si become increasingly significant. For values of Γ<<1, the value of Q_(Si) increases in significance in relation to maximum achievable total Q. In the silicon portion of the hybrid resonator, the main sources of loss include scattering, radiation, and absorption. Thus, Q_(Si) may be expressed according to Equation 5, below.

$\begin{matrix} {\frac{1}{Q_{Si}} = {\frac{1}{Q_{SC}} + \frac{1}{Q_{rad}} + \frac{1}{Q_{abs}}}} & (5) \end{matrix}$

The absorption limited Q for Si-only resonators at telecom wavelength bands around 1.55 μm is typically Q_(abs)>10⁷.

Example Photonic Resonator

An example embodiment relates to a 1D (one-dimensional) photonic crystal resonator, which is operable for minimizing radiation leakage, setting the lasing frequency, and ensuring single mode output generation. FIG. 5 depicts a top view (not to any scale) of an example high-Q photonic resonator, according to an embodiment of the present invention.

The example resonator may be implemented to comprise two (2) uniform mirror sections of a length L_(m) and a bandgap modulated middle section with a length L_(d), which is operable for localizing a high-Q defect resonance. The insets depict structural characteristics of a unit cell and a 3D perspective view of the resonator.

The example photonic resonator thus implemented may attain a Q_(rad)>10⁸, thus eliminating radiation leakage as a critical or significant loss-contributing mechanism. Further, optimizing Si processes according to an example embodiment reduce scattering due to surface roughness to Q>10⁶. As the value for Q_(Si)=10⁶ may be significant in relation to the Si resonator, example embodiments may reduce linewidth by a factor of 100-1000 (in the limit of Γ→0), in relation to typical all-III-V InP-based semiconductor lasers for which Q_(III-V)˜10⁴. As Γ→0 however, consequent reductions in modal gain may cause significant increase in threshold carrier density, which implies that an optimal value of Γ for high coherence may exist. Hybrid lasers are also implemented with varying Γ for determining an optimally narrow linewidth.

IC-Based Control Over Spontaneous Emission

In an example embodiment, the mode confinement factor Γ is tuned with the incorporation of a low refractive index spacer layer. FIG. 6A depicts a schematic cross-section of a second example hybrid Si/III-V Laser, according to an embodiment of the present invention. An example embodiment may be implemented in which the low refractive index spacer comprises a layer of silicon dioxide (SiO₂), which is disposed between the Si hybrid portion and the Group III-V hybrid portion. Varying the thickness of the spacer changes the penetration of the evanescent tail of the mode into the III-V portion of the hybrid, which controls the value of Γ and thus, the cavity quality factor Q as shown with reference to Equation 4, above. Further, this tuning affects linewidth as well.

Manipulating the penetration of the evanescent tail in the III-V hybrid portion changes the local intensity of the field in the active multiple quantum well (MQW) region, which affects the rate of spontaneous emission into the lasing mode according to Fermi's Golden Rule. Upon analyzing the spontaneous emission rate R_(sp) into its constituent parameters, the quantum noise linewidth may be expressed according to Proportionality 6, below.

$\begin{matrix} {\left( {\Delta \; v} \right)_{ST} \propto \frac{\Gamma_{MQW}{N_{th}^{2}\left( {\Gamma_{{MQW},}Q} \right)}}{Q}} & (6) \end{matrix}$

In Proportionality 6, Γ_(MQW) represents the mode confinement factor in the MQW region. The presence of Γ_(MQW) in Proportionality 6 accounts for the modification of the spontaneous emission rate into the lasing mode, due to the change of the mode's intensity in the MQW region. The threshold carrier density, represented with N_(th), scales in opposite directions with Γ_(MQW) and Q. An optimum value of Γ_(MQW) minimizes (Δν)_(ST).

Based on Proportionality 6 and for typical parameter values for InP-based laser diodes, the linewidth reduction (or broadening) factor may be computed as a function of spacer thickness. FIG. 7A and FIG. 7B depict representations of quantum noise effects on linewidth for two different values of Q_(Si).

In FIG. 7A, computed quantum noise linewidth reduction (or broadening) factor are plotted as a function of the low refractive index SiO₂ spacer thickness. The linewidth reduction factor comprises a ratio of the linewidth at a given spacer thickness to the linewidth for a nominal minimum thickness of 50 nm. The areas 71 and 79 correspond to linewidth reduction and broadening, respectively. The solid and dashed lines correspond to hybrid cavities with Q_(Si)=10⁶ and Q_(Si)=10⁵, respectively. FIG. 7B depicts a plot of the spontaneous emission factor as a function of the thickness of the SiO₂ spacer for two values of Q_(Si), 10⁵ and 10⁶.

The roll-off and eventual linewidth re-broadening for thicker spacer thicknesses is due to the rise in N_(th) as a result of insufficient gain from the MQW region at extremely low Γ_(MQW) values. A linewidth reduction factor on the order of 100× is computed for values of Q_(Si)+10⁶. The computed linewidth reduction is significantly downgraded for Q_(Si)=10⁵, which illustrates the significance of the high-Q Si resonator. An example embodiment is implemented in which such linewidth reduction is achieved with fabrication and measurement of high-Q hybrid Si/III-V lasers with spacer thickness that vary between, e.g., 50-200 nm, inclusive.

Example Heat Dissipation in the Hybrid Si/III-V Laser Platform

External active cooling is used for precision control over laser operating temperature to allow its stable and narrow-linewidth operation. Temperature fluctuations cause the lasing frequency to jitter, which contributes to frequency noise at low frequency offsets. In addition to the ambient temperature, internal heating due to series resistances contributes to elevation of junction temperature. Without effective heat dissipation, steep temperature gradients may arise between the sink and the junction, which may negate the affect of the active cooling. Elevated junction temperatures then reduce gain significantly and enhance degenerative effects from non-radiative carrier recombination and current leakage, which can increase threshold current density and reduce slope efficiency and/or output optical power.

Heat dissipation for laser diodes is typically implemented by bonding the laser die to a thermoelectrically controlled (e.g., Peltier) heat sink. FIG. 8A and FIG. 8B each show typical heat dissipation configurations for a laser diode. FIG. 8A depicts a first example heat dissipation configuration, in which the laser is bonded to the heat sink with its epitaxial (epi) side configured in an “up” configuration. FIG. 8B depicts a first example heat dissipation configuration, in which the laser is bonded to the heat sink with its epi-side configured in a “down” configuration (opposite to the up configuration).

While epi-side up is a simpler configuration, its longer path (˜100 μm) has a concomitantly higher thermal resistance from the heat source to the sink, relative to epi-side down. Yet while epi-side down has a more efficient heat-dissipating path (˜2 μm), relative to epi-side down, it has a more complex and precise process. Nonetheless, epi-side down die bonding is somewhat more typical for managing heating in high power and quantum cascade lasers and other heat-intensive lasers.

An example embodiment is implemented with epi-side down heat management applied over the hybrid Si/III-V platform lasers. While also useful in some implementations, the epi-side up bonding scheme drives heat flow towards the sink through the silicon handle of its SOI (silicon-on-insulator) wafer. This sink-toward flow situation may be exacerbated first by the presence of a buried oxide layer (BOX), which has a thermal conductivity 100× lower than that of silicon. Further, the sink-toward flow may be promoted by the presence of air trenches on either side of an etched silicon ridge waveguide component. Unique to the hybrid Si/III-V laser platform, this flow raises the overall thermal resistance of epi-side up bonding schemes.

The hybrid Si/III-V lasers described herein may develop junction temperatures significantly higher than conventional III-V LDs, e.g., as seen with “early” thermal roll-offs observed in the L-I characteristics of hybrid Si/III-V lasers. To promote linewidth reduction, an example embodiment is implemented in which epi-side down bonding techniques are used, which is especially significant with modal gain limitations, which may arise with use of higher thickness spacers. For example, embodiment fabricates hybrid Si/III-V lasers using epi-side-down bonding, such as a flip-chip mounting. Nonetheless, the hybrid Si/III-V lasers described herein remain compatible with other hybrid integration processes as well.

Example Process Flow

An example embodiment of the present invention relates to fabrication of a hybrid Si/III-V laser. FIG. 9 depicts a flowchart for an example fabrication process 90, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In step 91, electron-beam lithography, followed by plasma etching, defines active laser features on an SOI wafer substrate. In step 92, the SOI wafer with the defined laser features is bonded (e.g., wafer bonding) to the gain medium comprising the Template III-V elements. In step 93, the III-V medium is patterned and a current path is defined. In step 94, metallic contacts are fabricated so that the laser device is compatible with flip chip mounting.

An example embodiment may be implemented in which the passive Si resonator components are patterned with e-beam lithography (e.g., Vistec EBPG 5000+ lithography, Zeon ZEP 520A nano-photolithographic resist, etc.) and a transfer of resulting patterns to silicon with a pseudo-Bosch process (e.g., Oxford 380). The waveguide sidewalls are smoothened to improve Q_(sc) by growing approximately 15 nm of dry thermal oxide (e.g., in which oxidation times are computed using a Massoud-related oxidization model). The oxide is then stripped with HF (hydrofluoric acid; e.g., Transene-Buffer HF-Improved) and approximately 20 nm of dry oxide is then re-grown. The silicon chip is then prepared for direct wafer bonding using acetone and isopropanol (IPA) based cleaning, followed by an organic strip in a stabilized mixture of sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄, aka HOSOOOH and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂ aka HOOH) such as Nanostrip (e.g., Cyantek) or the like for a 1 min duration or so.

An unpatterned III-V chip with an epi-structure is prepared through acetone and IPA cleans followed aqueous ammonium hydroxide (NH₄OH:H₂O) in a corresponding 1:15 solution for 10 minutes or so. The chip surfaces on each opposite side are activated for bonding with five (5) or so treatments in oxygen plasma at 200 W (Suss NP12). The chips are then directly bonded. For example, the chips may be bonded with a mutual compression together, e.g., with forces approximating bringing them into contact and applying light pressure with tweezers, although the precise bonding mechanism remains unclear as to spontaneous bonding, or pressure-induced bonding, respectively. The bonded chips are then annealed at 150° C. for 1 h, followed by 285° C. for 5 h. After the bonding and/or annealing, the InP (Indium Phosphide) handle is removed in aqueous hydrochloric acid at e.g., a 1:3 HCl:H₂O concentration.

An example embodiment may be implemented using ion implantation (e.g., H+, 170 keV, 5×10⁻⁴ cm⁻²) and an AZ5214E mask to define a current path above the silicon waveguide. A p-contact to p+ —InGaAs (high-p-type Indium Gallium Arsenide) is formed over the current path by depositing layers of titanium, platinum and gold (Ti/Pt/Au, 20 nm/50 nm/150 nm) and lifting off image-reversed AZ5210 resist. A mesa is created in the III-V material by wet-etching down to the n-contact layer (e.g., using Piranha ₂SO₄:H₂O₂:H₂O, 1:1:10, respectively for 7 s and HCl:H₂O, 1:2, respectively, for 17 s, Piranha 45 s). An n-contact to n+ InP (high-n-type Indium Phosphide) by depositing Germanium/Gold/Nickel/Gold (Ge/Au/Ni/Au, 30 nm/50 nm/12 nm/225 nm).

The die is thinned to 150 μm and cleaved into bars. Individual bars are annealed at 325° C. for 30 s. An aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃) anti-reflection coating of 250 nm is disposed over each of the opposing, substantially parallel facets of the bars.

Example embodiments may be implemented that measure frequency noise using Mach-Zehnder interferometry (MZI) for frequency discrimination. The differential delay is kept shorter than the expected laser coherence time. The corresponding MZI free-spectral range (FSR) comprises 847 MHz. The MZI interferometer converts laser phase fluctuations to intensity fluctuations when biased at quadrature and measured with a high speed photodetector, the spectrum of which is obtained on an RF spectrum analyzer. The choice for the interferometer delay may comprise a trade-off between the frequency scan range and the frequency gain.

Accurate results may be obtained in which the interferometer remains at quadrature for the duration of a high-resolution measurement of the frequency spectrum. Hybrid lasers thus under test (e.g., not being packaged), may be particularly sensitive to environmental or ambient temperature fluctuations, causing the laser center frequency to drift out of quadrature. The MZI may thus be locked in quadrature with negative electronic feedback to the pump current of the laser. This feedback loop bandwidth is kept below 100 Hz, which suffices for suppressing low-frequency temperature-induced fluctuations, while leaving the higher-frequency noise spectrum unaffected.

Example High-O Separated Function Hybrid Si/III-V Laser

FIG. 10 depicts a cross-section of an example High-Q separated function hybrid laser (SFL) device 1000, according to an embodiment of the present invention. Laser 1000 represents the hybrid laser diode depicted in either or both of FIG. 4 or FIG. 6. FIG. 11A depicts a perspective of the example High-Q SFL laser 1000, according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 11A depicts an example grating component of the High-Q SFL device 1000, according to an embodiment of the present invention.

Example embodiments of the present invention maximize the phase coherence of a semiconductor lasers with a spatial separation of two (2) of its major functions: the generation of photons, and the storage of photons. Existing DFB LDs, which may be constructed using III-V material components according to conventional approaches, inevitably compromise between such functions and in large part, it is this compromise that constrains or degrades the phase coherence performance in conventional LDs.

Example embodiments of the present invention relate to a two-material hybrid Si/III-V platform, which circumvents or obviates compromising between photon generation and photon storage and improves their phase coherence significantly over conventional LDs. In example embodiments, photons are generated largely in a component comprising a III-V optically active material, and photons are stored in a low-optical loss Si component. The III-V material is thus put to its most efficient and suitable use—photon generation—free from the conventional constraints of accommodating waveguiding and the photon storage functions. The storage and waveguiding are more efficiently in the low-loss Si material component.

As shown in FIG. 10, photon storage occurs in the low-loss Silicon component and the high-Q hybrid Si/III-V resonator as part of the laser cavity. The high-Q resonator stores a large amount of optical energy for a given power output and thus acts as an optical flywheel, which reduces the effects of phase perturbations caused by quantum mandated spontaneously-emitted photons generated in the III-V material.

Moreover, increasing the cavity Q reduces the total population of excited electrons and holes required to reach the oscillation threshold, which translates directly and proportionally to a decreased rate of loss-causing spontaneous emission events. Example embodiments may be implemented using Si substrates compatible with available wafer-scale processing techniques for fabrication of optoelectronic circuitry, devices and packages.

The effects of the factors limiting the laser coherence are evident in an expression for the phase excursion according to Equation 7, below.

$\begin{matrix} {{{\langle{{{\Delta\theta}(\tau)}}^{2}\rangle} = {\frac{R}{2\overset{\_}{n}}\left( {1 + \alpha^{2}} \right)r}},} & (7) \end{matrix}$

In Equation 7, R represents the spontaneous emission rate (s⁻¹) into the lasing mode, n represents the average number of coherent photons in the optical resonator, a represents the linewidth enhancement factor due to coupling of amplitude and phase fluctuations, and τ represents the symbol duration (s).

Reducing the overall optical losses in the laser resonator makes the value of R smaller, while for a given power emission, increases the value of n. This double benefit of lowering the losses is highlighted by recasting Equation 7 in the form shown according to Equation 8, below.

$\begin{matrix} {{{\langle{{{\Delta\theta}(\tau)}}^{2}\rangle} = {\frac{4\pi^{2}{hv}_{o}^{3}\eta}{Q^{2}P}\left( {1 + \alpha^{2}} \right)r}},} & (8) \end{matrix}$

In Equation 8, ν₀ represents the lasing center frequency, η represents the population inversion factor, which characterizes the increase in the spontaneous emission rate due to partial inversion, P represents the total optical power emitted into the lasing mode, and Q represents the cold cavity, loaded quality factor of the laser resonator.

Enhancing the quality factor Q of the resonator leads to a major (e.g., proportional to Q²) linewidth reduction. To maximize Q, it is helpful to separate it, conceptually, into the different optical loss mechanisms of which it is comprised, according to Equation 9, below [18].

$\begin{matrix} {{\frac{1}{Q} = {\frac{1}{Q_{rad}} + \frac{1}{Q_{ba}} + \frac{1}{Q_{sc}} + \frac{1}{Q_{e}}}},} & (9) \end{matrix}$

In Equation 9 the subscripts of the loss components indicate radiation, bulk absorption, scattering, and external loss through the cavity's mirrors, respectively. The loss factors Q_(rad), Q_(ba), and Q_(sc) represent sources of a loss Q_(i) intrinsic to the resonator, which sets an upper bound on the maximum possible Q of the resonator. The resonator loading, Q_(e), determines the fraction of stored energy that is tapped as useful output through the laser mirrors. There is a trade-off in laser design between stored energy and useful output.

The high-Q hybrid resonator comprises a silicon waveguide, which is patterned with a 1D grating, as depicted in FIGS. 11B and/or 12A. The Si waveguide determines the oscillation frequency and tailors the longitudinal mode profile of the Laser. The coupling to radiation modes (Q_(rad) ⁻¹) is minimized via a bandgap-modulated “defect” (e.g., nonuniform) section, disposed in the middle (or nearly so) of an otherwise uniform grating, as depicted in FIG. 12A.

The defect is designed directly in the frequency domain, e.g., by parabolically modulating the lower frequency band edge of the grating as a function of position along the resonator, as depicted in FIG. 12B. This quadratic modulation acts as a potential well, localizing a resonant mode with a Gaussian-like profile in both real and reciprocal space (FIG. 12D, 12E, respectively), not dissimilar to the ground state electron wavefunction in a quantum harmonic oscillator. Selecting a well depth V, comprising an offset frequency from the uniform grating band edge, and its spatial width L_(d), example embodiments localize the mode tightly in a k-space, which reduces significantly coupling to the continuum of radiation modes.

Example embodiments relate to fabricating a device in which the frequency band edge profile is translated to a grating structure modulation by varying the transverse diameter W_(y) of etched holes along the length of the resonator, as shown in FIG. 12A. To minimize scattering loss Q_(sc) ⁻¹, the waveguide is fabricated with a shallow rib geometry, to “bury” the mode in the Si slab as shown in FIG. 10 and thus isolate it from the roughness of the etched sidewalls. Bulk absorption Q_(ba) ⁻¹, predominantly due to free carrier absorption in heavily-doped III-V material, is reduced by the transverse mode profile minimizing the fraction of the optical energy stored in the III-V material. For example, with a Si device layer choice of a 500 nm, 75% of the modal energy is confined to the low absorption Si component and away from the lossy III-V component.

Uniform grating reflectors of length L_(m) on either side of the defect determine the fraction of the total power generated in the active region that is coupled as useful output, and therefore the external loading of the resonator (Q_(e)). As total loaded Q is maximized to reduce phase noise, the high-Q hybrid resonators are implemented with significant undercoupling, in which Q_(e)>Q_(i). Using such a loading regime with conventional DFB LDs causes susceptibility to spatial hole burning-induced mode instability and linewidth rebroadening due to their sharply-peaked spatial mode profile. In example embodiments on the other hand, such spatial hole burning is mitigated by significantly broader Gaussian longitudinal mode profiles, which allows considerable undercoupling and, therefore, large stored energies in the cavity.

FIGS. 12A and 12B, inclusive, depict features of an example high-Q hybrid resonator, according to an example embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 12A depicts a top view schematic of an example geometry of an ultra-low-loss grating disposed in Si. FIG. 12B depicts spatial band structure for an example high-Q hybrid resonator, plotted against the simulated transmission spectrum, for design parameters (V, L_(d))=(300 GHz, 100 μm), respectively, wherein V represents the depth of the photonic well with respect to the low frequency mirror band edge and L _(d) the length of the grating defect section. FIG. 12C depicts a dispersion diagram of an example local unit cell. The Eigenfrequencies f_(v), f_(c) correspond, respectively, to modulated frequency distribution f_(v)(x), f_(c)(x) of the resonator spatial band structure. FIG. 12D depicts a simulated intensity profile for the longitudinal field of an example high-Q hybrid resonator. The upper (e.g., grey-shaded) area denotes the defect. FIG. 12E depicts the Fourier component amplitude distribution of the longitudinal field of an example high-Q hybrid resonator. The grey-shaded (e.g., middle) area denotes the continuum of radiation modes. FIG. 12F depicts the simulated emission spectrum of an example high-Q SFL. The grey-shaded area (e.g., between the 2 higher peaks) denotes the resonator bandgap.

As described herein (e.g., with reference to FIG. 9), an example embodiment implements the fabrication of high-Q SFLs. Low-optical loss gratings may be disposed on the Si component using e-beam lithography and plasma etching, which may be followed by die-scale direct bonding to the III-V material component. The hybrid Si/III-V resonators may be implemented based on photonic wells with an example design parameter set of (V, L_(d))=(100 GHz, 200 μm), which produces a single localized defect mode. Radiation-limited quality factors on the order of 10⁷ are estimated on the basis of Fourier analysis for the selected design parameter set. The length of the distributed Bragg reflectors on either side of the defect is set to significantly undercouple the resonator, with a Q_(e) computed to approximate 5×10⁶, based on the assumption of a predominantly III-V absorption-limited intrinsic Q for the example resonator. Example cavity lengths, including the reflectors, are in the range of 1 mm.

As described herein (e.g., with reference to FIG. 9), an example embodiment implements the fabrication of high-Q SFLs. Low-optical loss gratings may be disposed on the Si component using e-beam lithography and plasma etching, which may be followed by die-scale direct bonding to the III-V material component. The hybrid Si/III-V resonators may be implemented based on photonic wells with an example design parameter set of (V, L_(d))=(100 GHz, 200 μm), which produces a single localized defect mode.

Radiation-limited quality factors on the order of 10⁷ are estimated on the basis of Fourier analysis for the selected design parameter set. The length of the distributed Bragg reflectors on either side of the defect is set to significantly undercouple the resonator, with a Q_(e) computed to approximate 5×10⁶, based on the assumption of a predominantly III-V absorption-limited intrinsic Q for the example resonator. Example cavity lengths, including the reflectors, are in the range of 1 mm.

FIG. 13A depicts optical power plotted against pump current over various operating temperatures, according to an example embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 13B depicts light (optical power output) plotted against pump current over various operating temperatures, according to an example embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 13C depicts optical spectra of example High-Q SFLs at a given pump current and at a certain temperature, according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 13D depicts optical spectra of example High-Q SFLs of various grating periods at a given driving current and a certain temperature, according to an embodiment of the present invention.

Testing the example high-Q SFLs unpackaged and/or on a temperature controlled stage, example embodiments have been implemented to achieve single-mode, continuous-wave (CW) laser operation with threshold currents as low as 30 mA and single-side output powers as high as 9 mW at room temperature (20 C), as shown in FIG. 13B). Lasing may occur over temperatures spanning a range from 10° C. to 75° C., as shown in FIG. 13A. Single-mode oscillation is observed to be implemented over a wavelengths, which span a range of 45 nm between approximately 1530 nm-1575 nm, inclusive, in lasers with appropriately varying or different grating periods.

FIG. 13C shows a representative optical spectrum of an example high-Q SFL. Side mode suppression ratios exceeding 50 Decibels (dB) are obtained at each of the operating wavelengths, as shown in FIG. 13D). Experimental optical spectrum agree with the spectra simulated for both the passive and active resonators, as shown in FIGS. 13B and 13F, respectively. The lasing mode appears, as predicted from such simulation, near the low frequency band edge (offset˜60 GHz), with the strongest side mode appearing just outside the low frequency band edge.

Example embodiments characterize the temporal coherence of the high-Q SFL with measurement of the spectral density of the frequency fluctuations, which avoids ambiguities inherent to conventional self-heterodyne measurement techniques in discriminating between low frequency (e.g. 1/f) and high frequency noise contributions to the spectral linewidth. Displaying the noise as a function of frequency allows resolution or separation of the individual noise mechanisms. The high frequency components of the noise spectrum may be more significant than the low frequency noise components, because the high frequency portion of the noise spectrum affects high-data rate optical communications more significantly.

FIG. 14 depicts a frequency noise spectrum of an example high-Q SFL, according to an embodiment of the present invention. Two (2) distinct regions in the plot can be discerned. A first region, which reaches up to approx. 100 kHz, displays a 1/f-type dependence, while a second segment has a gentler slope that extends up to 100 MHz. The hybrid high-Q SFL laser diodes of example embodiments are characterized by the trend shown in FIG. 14. The observed frequency noise spectrum is largely dominated by noise having a technical origin (e.g., noise caused by laser driving electronics). A level white noise floor is not clearly represented in these data. Thus, an upper bound on the spontaneous emission-induced phase noise may be expressed in terms of a Schawlow-Townes linewidth by using the value of the spectral density at the high-frequency end and multiplying it by 2π for the two-sided spectra measured experimentally in relation to the example embodiments implemented according to the present invention. The narrowest linewidth thus attained has a valued of 18 kHz, measured at a pump current of 4.5×I_(th) (e.g., 160 mA).

In FIG. 14, frequency noise is expressed in relation to power spectral density (PSD) in Hz²/Hz as a function of the offset frequency from the carrier, taken at a pump current of 160 mA (4.5×I_(th)) at 20° C. The spikes shown at near the 100 kHz and 100 MHz frequencies correspond respectively to current source electronic noise and FM radio noise. The PSD value near 100 MHz, multiplied by 2n, yields a Schawlow-Townes linewidth of 18 kHz. The FIG. 4 inset portion includes the full frequency noise spectrum as obtained, e.g., using RF spectrum analysis, which shows the feedback-suppressed low frequency end of the spectrum, as well as the onset of the Mach-Zehnder Interferometric (MZI) roll-off at 200 MHz for a free spectral range (FSR) of 847 MHz.

FIG. 15A depicts a Schawlow-Townes linewidth of an example High-Q SFL as a function of the offset pump current from a threshold, according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 15B depicts a distribution of Schawlow-Townes linewidths as a function of their respective emission wavelengths for example High-Q SFL devices implemented over multiple laser bars fabricated on several separate semiconductor chips, according to an embodiment of the present invention.

Deviation from the expected linewidth dependence on pump current is observed in the form of a linewidth floor. This deviation is due, at least in part, to increased side mode competition observed in the optical spectra of the lasers and may be likely caused by spatial hole burning. Narrow-linewidth performance is demonstrated across the entire C-band, as shown in FIG. 15B obtained from lasers with varying grating periods, and which span different chips and laser bars.

FIG. 16A depicts a modal energy distribution typical of conventional lasers. Most of the energy is distributed in the active region of conventional semiconductor lasers. In contrast, example embodiments of the present invention distribute most of the energy apart from the active region.

For example, a laser resonator according to an example embodiment includes an active material, which amplifies light associated with an optical gain of the resonator, and passive materials disposed in proximity with the active material. The resonator oscillates over one or more optical modes, each of which corresponds to a particular spatial energy distribution and resonant frequency.

FIG. 16B depicts an example modal energy distribution for a laser, according to an embodiment of the present invention. Based on a characteristic of the passive materials, for the particular spatial energy distribution corresponding to at least one of the optical modes, a preponderant portion of optical energy is distributed apart from the active material (e.g., III-V material).

The passive materials may include a low loss material (e.g., Si), which stores the preponderant optical energy portion distributed apart from the active material, and buffer material (e.g., SiO₂) disposed between the low loss (Si) material and the active (III-V) material, which controls a ratio of the optical energy stored in the low loss material to a portion of the optical energy in the active material.

Example embodiments of the present invention thus relate to a new type of high-coherence semiconductor laser, which is based on deliberate spatial separation of two (2) of the more significant functions of the laser: light generation in a photogeneratively efficient III-V material component and light storage in a low-optical loss Si component. These functions, together substantially determinative the laser coherence. The improved coherence is due, predominantly, to a major increase of the Q factor of the example laser resonators described herein, which display laser linewidths as narrow as 18 kHz.

To characterize the performance of these example embodiments technologically, lasers with the degree of phase coherence thus enabled comfortably enable implementation of 16-QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation) coherent communication schema, LIDAR and other high-performance applications at significant savings over the electrical power demands characterizing conventional DFB LDs. Moreover, lasers implemented as described herein are also amenable to on-chip integration of optical and electronic functions.

Example embodiments of the present invention are thus described in relation to a resonator for a laser device. The laser resonator has at least one active material for amplifying light associated with an optical gain of the resonator. The laser resonator also has one or more passive materials disposed in proximity with the at least one active material wherein the resonator oscillates over one or more optical modes, each of the one or more optical modes corresponding to a particular spatial energy distribution and resonant frequency, and wherein, based on a characteristic of the one or more passive materials, for the particular spatial energy distribution corresponding to at least one of the one or more optical modes, a preponderant portion of optical energy is distributed apart from the active material.

The one or more passive materials may include a low loss material for storing optical energy of the preponderant portion distributed apart from the active material. The one or more passive materials may also include a buffer material disposed between the low loss material and the at least one active material for controlling a ratio of the optical energy stored in the low loss material to a portion of the optical energy in the active material. The buffer material may include a material like silicon dioxide, which has a low refractive index. The active material may include a III-V material and the low loss material may include silicon. The passive materials may be disposed in layers, at least one of which is bonded (e.g., with wafer bonding) with a layer with active material.

The low loss passive material may be configured with a pattern of holes. The configured hole pattern may determine an oscillation frequency, an output rate and an output mode profile of the resonator and deters spontaneous emission therefrom. The pattern of holes may have a one-dimensional (1D) configuration, such as a linear or near linear aspect. The configured pattern of holes may include an approximately uniform array of holes of approximately uniform size, and a defect (e.g., related to the approx. uniform size) disposed within (e.g., over, in or nearly in a center area of) the approximately uniform array of holes.

Example embodiments of the present invention also relate to laser devices with such resonators disposed on semiconductor dies. The laser devices may have a heat sink component attached to the semiconductor die and configured therewith for removing heat generated in the active material from the resonator of the laser device. The heat sink may be attached to the semiconductor die with an epitaxial-side-down configuration in relation to the active material of the laser resonator (or in other configurations). The laser device may also have a detector component attached to the semiconductor die and configured therewith for determining an output characteristic of the laser resonator. The output characteristic may relate to measuring a frequency noise related component of the resonator output, which may include computing a high frequency noise spectrum of the resonator output and suppressing measurement of low frequency fluctuations of the resonator output.

Example embodiments of the present invention relate to a method for lasing, which includes amplifying light associated with an optical gain in at least one active material of an optical resonator, and distributing spatial energy within the resonator, in which one or more passive materials are disposed in proximity with the at least one active material, in which the resonator oscillates over one or more optical modes, each of the one or more optical modes corresponding to a particular spatial energy distribution and resonant frequency, and in which, based on a characteristic of the one or more passive materials, for the particular spatial energy distribution corresponding to at least one of the one or more optical modes, a preponderant portion of optical energy is distributed apart from the active material.

The one or more passive materials may include a low loss material for storing optical energy of the preponderant portion distributed apart from the active material, as well as a buffer material, which is disposed between the low loss material and the at least one active material, and effectively controls a ratio of the optical energy stored in the low loss material to a portion of the optical energy in the active material. Example embodiments relate to lasers, e.g., systems, devices products, etc. for sustaining such lasing processes, as well as to methods for fabricating them.

A separated function laser is described herein, including the references listed below. The laser has a substrate layer, a storage and waveguiding layer adjacent to the substrate layer, and a photon generation layer adjacent to the storage and waveguiding layer. The storage and waveguiding layer comprises a grating pattern adjacent to the photon generation layer.

Example embodiments of the present invention are described above in relation to a resonator for a laser device. The laser resonator has at least one active material for amplifying light associated with an optical gain of the resonator. The laser resonator also has one or more passive materials disposed in proximity with the at least one active material wherein the resonator oscillates over one or more optical modes, each of the one or more optical modes corresponding to a particular spatial energy distribution and resonant frequency, and wherein, based on a characteristic of the one or more passive materials, for the particular spatial energy distribution corresponding to at least one of the one or more optical modes, a preponderant portion of optical energy is distributed apart from the active material.

The one or more passive materials may include a low loss material for storing optical energy of the preponderant portion distributed apart from the active material. The one or more passive materials may also include a buffer material disposed between the low loss material and the at least one active material for controlling a ratio of the optical energy stored in the low loss material to a portion of the optical energy in the active material. The buffer material may include a material like silicon dioxide, which has a low refractive index. The active material may include a III-V material and the low loss material may include silicon. The passive materials may be disposed in layers, at least one of which is bonded (e.g., with wafer bonding) with a layer with active material.

The low loss passive material may be configured with a pattern of holes. The configured hole pattern may determine an oscillation frequency, an output rate and an output mode profile of the resonator and deters spontaneous emission therefrom. The pattern of holes may have a one-dimensional (1D) configuration, such as a linear or near linear aspect. The configured pattern of holes may include an approximately uniform array of holes of approximately uniform size, and a defect (e.g., related to the approx. uniform size) disposed within (e.g., over, in or nearly in a center area of) the approximately uniform array of holes.

Example embodiments of the present invention also relate to laser devices with such resonators disposed on semiconductor dies. The laser devices may have a heat sink component attached to the semiconductor die and configured therewith for removing heat generated in the active material from the resonator of the laser device. The heat sink may be attached to the semiconductor die with an epitaxial-side-down configuration in relation to the active material of the laser resonator (or in other configurations). The laser device may also have a detector component attached to the semiconductor die and configured therewith for determining an output characteristic of the laser resonator. The output characteristic may relate to measuring a frequency noise related component of the resonator output, which may include computing a high frequency noise spectrum of the resonator output and suppressing measurement of low frequency fluctuations of the resonator output.

Example embodiments of the present invention relate to a method for lasing, which includes amplifying light associated with an optical gain in at least one active material of an optical resonator, and distributing spatial energy within the resonator, in which one or more passive materials are disposed in proximity with the at least one active material, in which the resonator oscillates over one or more optical modes, each of the one or more optical modes corresponding to a particular spatial energy distribution and resonant frequency, and in which, based on a characteristic of the one or more passive materials, for the particular spatial energy distribution corresponding to at least one of the one or more optical modes, a preponderant portion of optical energy is distributed apart from the active material.

The one or more passive materials may include a low loss material for storing optical energy of the preponderant portion distributed apart from the active material, as well as a buffer material, which is disposed between the low loss material and the at least one active material and effectively controls a ratio of the optical energy stored in the low loss material to a portion of the optical energy in the active material. Example embodiments relate to lasers, e.g., systems, devices products, etc. for sustaining such lasing processes, as well as to methods for fabricating them.

Thus, a laser resonator is described, which includes an active material for amplifying light associated with an optical gain of the resonator, and passive materials disposed in proximity with the active material. The resonator oscillates over one or more optical modes, each of which corresponds to a particular spatial energy distribution and resonant frequency. Based on a characteristic of the passive materials, for the particular spatial energy distribution corresponding to at least one of the optical modes, a preponderant portion of optical energy is distributed apart from the active material. The passive materials may include a low loss material, which stores the preponderant optical energy portion distributed apart from the active material, and a buffer material disposed between the low loss material and the active material, which controls a ratio of the optical energy stored in the low loss material to a portion of the optical energy in the active material.

As described above, semiconductor lasers have traditionally followed the “common-sense” approach of maximizing the available gain for the optical mode by placing the multiple quantum well regions in the center of the mode, as shown in FIG. 1 16A. The drawback of this approach is that the mode is present exclusively in the III-V semiconductor, which is very lossy, and therefore increases the linewidth by both increasing the carrier density as well as reducing the number of quanta. The approach of the present disclosure, as shown in FIG. 16B, instead controls the rate of spontaneous emission into the lasing mode by reducing the optical field intensity at the quantum well region, and moving the mode into the low-loss silicon region. In other words, by reducing the loss, the quality factor of the cavity is improved by orders of magnitude, thereby reducing the linewidth. An important insight is that the reduction in modal gain by reducing the field at the quantum wells is compensated by the reduction of modal loss, so that the threshold current and optical power are unaffected by this design.

The reduction of spontaneous emission by transverse mode control offers several advantages, especially compared to external-cavity designs where the gain medium is coupled to a long passive section in order to reduce linewidth:

-   -   1. The field intensity varies exponentially in the transverse         direction; therefore small changes in the fabrication dimensions         enable orders of magnitude improvement in laser linewidth         without compromising the small device footprint or ease of         integration with other optoelectronic components.     -   2. There are no coupling regions between active and passive         waveguide sections, and therefore no additional losses or need         for precise alignment.     -   3. Transverse mode control for linewidth reduction is         independent of the longitudinal mode control, which makes the         technique more versatile for several laser designs, e.g., single         mode DFB/DBR lasers, tunable lasers, etc.

The technique for spontaneous emission control presented in the present disclosure is versatile and can be readily extended to a variety of laser designs, some of which are listed in the following. Since the wavelength of oscillation of the laser is lithographically determined to high accuracy, an array of lasers at the same wavelength (e.g., for phased arrays) or different wavelengths (e.g., for wavelength-division-multiplexed communication systems along with a multiplexer or switch) can be readily fabricated on the same photonic integrated circuit. The technique is independent of the type of laser cavity, and can be applied to other laser designs as long as the losses in the resonator are sufficiently low. Some laser designs of particular interest include: 1. Tunable lasers, e.g., lasers including multiple Vernier-tunable grating reflectors to select the wavelength of emission. The gratings etched in the passive medium (silicon) can be controlled by temperature—using integrated local heaters placed in close proximity to the grating and/or the tuning sections—or by current injection. Tunable lasers that span the C-band, or more, are of particular interest for high-speed telecommunication networks. 2. Resonator designs with high Q, including DFB resonators, DBR resonators, discrete mode lasers etc. In some embodiments, separate electrical contacts can be added to the device, to inject electrical currents to electrically tune the Bragg reflectors separately.

Additional optical or optoelectronic feedback and/or filtering can be employed to further reduce both the white frequency noise as well as the 1/f noise at low frequencies. The integrated laser on a hybrid platform enables these techniques to be achieved on-chip. These methods include: 1. Optical injection locking from a stabilized high-Q passive optical resonator. 2. Electronic stabilization of the laser and removal of frequency noise using negative feedback. The use of a feedback loop to stabilize the laser to a high-Q optical resonator or filter by varying its injection current or temperature results in the reduction of the laser frequency noise within the loop bandwidth. Such negative feedback techniques (optical or optoelectronic) are very useful to suppress the low-frequency 1/f frequency noise in the laser. 3. The high-frequency phase noise spectrum of the laser can be further reduced by locking the laser frequency to the center of an optical filter with a high transmission at line-center and a very narrow linewidth (high-Q). The output of the laser after passing it through the filter has a reduced noise spectrum at higher frequencies.

Since the overwhelming majority of the optical mode rests in the passive medium in this design, the thermal properties of the laser are improved. In particular, decreased absorption of the optical power leads to lower local temperature variations across the mode, thereby eliminating undesirable effects such as self-focusing or filamentation of the optical mode. In turn, this enables higher optical output powers in a single mode laser design than what is achievable by conventional III-V semiconductor lasers.

While in the present disclosure exemplary lasers were described as fabricated on a hybrid Si/III-V platform, the fundamental principle of removing the light from lossy III-V materials into lossless materials can be extended to other lossless media and resonator designs. Some of these materials may possess more desirable properties than silicon. For instance, a passive resonator fabricated on a silicon dioxide or a silicon nitride platform can lead to even higher Q than a silicon platform, particularly at higher optical powers, where silicon can suffer from considerable nonlinear absorption. These other materials may also have a lower temperature sensitivity compared to silicon, leading to a greater temperature stability than the hybrid Si/III-V lasers described in the present disclosure. Temperature stability may also be achieved by using an athermal resonator design bonded to the active medium.

The present disclosure describes a narrow linewidth laser device comprising a transverse mode control layer to control the distribution of the optical energy (a preponderant portion in a low loss medium and an evanescent portion in the lossy or gain media) and a high-Q resonator patterned in the waveguide to reduce losses.

In some embodiments, a low noise widely tunable semiconductor laser can comprise the transverse mode control layer to control the distribution of the optical energy, and a high-Q resonator patterned in the waveguide to reduce losses, with the resonator comprising a patterned grating including, for example, tunable gratings, typically using the Vernier effect. Vernier gratings are gratings based on the Vernier effect and can be employed for wide tuning. In the present disclosure, the Vernier gratings are specially designed to achieve a high-Q over the entire tuning range of the laser. The Vernier gratings are then combined with the transverse mode control layer. The Vernier gratings allow tuning of the low noise laser.

In some embodiments, the a thickness of the mode control layer is configured to transversely distribute the preponderant portion of the optical energy apart from the active material and maintain an evanescent field in the active material. Evanescent fields are known to the person of ordinary skill in the art.

FIG. 17 illustrates an extension of the quantum noise control concept to a tunable sampled grating distributed Bragg reflector (SGDBR) laser. A laser according to other embodiments of the present disclosure is illustrated (1705) and a laser with tunable Bragg reflectors is illustrated (1710). Each SGDBR grating mirror comprises a uniform grating that is modulated by a periodic nonuniform sampling function (ideally of the form sin z/z), and the front (1715) and back (1710) mirrors have different sampling periods. Thermal heaters can be incorporated in close proximity to each mirror to change the temperatures of the mirrors (T₁ and T₂) and enable spectral tuning.

The Quantum Noise Controlled Laser (QNCL) paradigm as described in the present disclosure is applicable to any tunable resonator design, see Ref. [61], that maintains a high Q across the tuning range. In the present disclosure, tunable resonators can utilize sampled grating distributed Bragg reflector (SGDBR) mirrors with slightly different grating sampling periods. An SGDBR grating consists of a uniform grating modulated by a periodic sampling function (or modulating function). The periodicity of the sampling function creates multiple orders of wavevectors that satisfy the Bragg condition, and the spectral reflectivity of each mirror is consequently a series of equally spaced peaks, with a spacing corresponding to the sampling period. The resonator can be thermally tuned using integrated heaters located in close proximity to each SGDBR mirror. The resonant frequency is determined by the Vernier effect, i.e., by the spectral overlap of one peak in the reflectivity spectrum of each grating mirror. Jayaraman et al., see Ref. [62], describe further details of a SGDBR laser design. In the present disclosure, a SGDBR implementation is described, comprising grating designs that both influence the QNCL design and are in turn influenced by the spontaneous emission control technique.

The three main parameters of interest in the design of a resonator for a widely tunable, ultra-coherent semiconductor laser are the wavelength tuning range, the sidemode suppression ratio (SMSR), and the quality-factor of the resonant mode. The design of sampled gratings to achieve wide tuning range and high SMSR is known to the person of ordinary skill in the art, for example as described in Ref. [62]. The SMSR is influenced by two types of competing modes: adjacent modes of the laser cavity, determined by the cavity length; and adjacent grating modes, determined by the sampling period of the grating. While the latter modes can be efficiently suppressed by the SGDBR design, it is desirable to have the cavity length of the order of the grating length or less for efficient suppression of adjacent cavity modes. It is therefore important that the laser linewidth reduction technique should not increase the length of the device excessively. The design paradigm of the present disclosure naturally separates the linewidth reduction and longitudinal mode control functions, and is inherently suited to these tunable laser designs.

The third key parameter, namely high-Q (low loss) modes over the entire tuning range, has proven elusive in state-of-the-art SGDBR designs owing to the high losses in the active medium as well as high mirror losses that vary across the different grating modes. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, this problem can be solved by a hybrid Si/III-V SG-DBR laser design with a sampled-grating-based silicon resonator that maintains a very high Q across all the grating modes. For example, Q can be about 10⁶. The high Q implies that the grating reflectivity peaks have to satisfy two requirements: (1) a very high reflectivity (typically >99.5%) and (2) uniformly high reflectivity for all the grating peaks across the tuning range of the device.

The reflectivity of the nth mode of a sampled grating is given by R(n)=tan h²(κ(n)×L_(unsamp)), where κ(n) is the coupling coefficient for the nth mode, and L_(unsamp) is the length of the unsampled grating. This peak is located at a wavevector β(n)=π/Λ₀+n·π/Λ_(samp), where Λ₀ and Λ_(samp) are the periods of the unsampled grating and the sampling function respectively. The coupling coefficients κ(n) are given by the Fourier transform of the sampling function, appropriately normalized. The key to realize a uniformly high reflectivity across all grating modes is a nonuniform sampling function (such as with the shape sin z/z) that samples the underlying uniform grating, resulting in a constant value of κ(n) across the tuning range. Other approaches, such as phase or frequency modulated gratings, may also be used to achieve uniform spectral reflectivity peaks with higher efficiency, see Ref. [63].

The nonuniform sampling function creates a structural change to the grating. The uniform grating with a constant period is spatially varied by a nonuniform sampling function. The physical dimensions of the gratings, such as the length, width, depth or all or some of them, can be changed according to the sampling function. For example, the function can determine how the length, width or depth of the grating perturbations are modified relative to a uniform grating pattern. For example, if the grating comprises holes or grooves in the material, the physical dimensions of the holes or grooves are modified, relative to a uniform pattern, according to the nonuniform function. The sampling function can also change the period or spacing of the grating. In the embodiments comprising two or more gratings, the sampling function applied to each grating can be the same or different. In some embodiments, the gratings can be tuned by varying their respecting temperatures through integrated heaters. These heaters are disposed in the proximity of the gratings, in such a way as to be able to control their temperature independently from other gratings. The integrated heaters can be, for example, heating pads or resistors.

The present disclosure describes, in some embodiments, a spatially varying sampled grating on the silicon waveguide (varying along the length of the waveguide) which results in a uniformly high reflectivity across all the grating peaks across the tuning range of the device. In some embodiments, the coupling coefficients κ achieved in experimentally demonstrated DFB lasers is about 100 cm⁻¹, the desired spacing of the reflectivity peaks of the sampled grating is about 4-5 nm, and a cavity length (not including the mirror sections) can be about 1-2 mm. With these parameters, it is possible to calculate that the overall length of the SG-DBR laser device in order to obtain a high Q-factor over all grating modes is less than 5 mm, which is a practical value for a compact, narrow linewidth, integrated, widely tunable laser design. In some embodiments, the parameters above may be modified outside the cited range, depending on the application.

In some embodiments, the tunable gratings, such as two tunable gratings which are independently tunable, are part of the mode control layer which controls the shifting of optical energy from the active optical layer to the low loss layer. In other embodiments, the gratings can be part of the low loss material layer. In yet other embodiments, the gratings can be part of the both the mode control layer and the low loss layer.

Definitions that are expressly set forth in each or any claim specifically or by way of example herein, for terms contained in relation to features of such claims are intended to govern the meaning of such terms. Thus, no limitation, element, property, feature, or attribute that is not expressly recited in a claim should limit the scope of such claim in any way. The specification and drawings are, accordingly, to be regarded in an illustrative rather than a restrictive sense. Example embodiments of the present invention relate to providing power to medical and physiological instruments and exchanging signals therewith.

In the foregoing specification, example embodiments of the invention have been described with reference to numerous specific details that may vary from implementation to implementation. The specification and drawings are, accordingly, to be regarded in an illustrative rather than a restrictive sense. The sole and exclusive indicator of the scope of the invention, and what is intended by the applicants to be the scope of the invention, is the literal and equivalent scope of the set of claims that issue from this application, in the specific form in which such claims issue, including any subsequent correction. The references in the present application, shown in the reference list below, are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

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What is claimed is:
 1. A laser resonator comprising: at least one active material providing optical gain for amplifying light within the resonator; and one or more passive materials disposed in proximity with the at least one active material, wherein the one or more passive materials comprise: a low loss material layer configured to store optical energy of a preponderant portion distributed apart from the active material, a mode control layer disposed between the at least one active material and the low loss material layer, wherein: the low loss material layer or the mode control layer or both the low loss material layer and the mode control layer comprise tunable gratings, the mode control layer is configured to control a ratio of the optical energy stored in the low loss material to a portion of the optical energy in the active material the laser resonator device oscillates over one or more optical modes, each of the one or more optical modes corresponding to a particular spatial energy distribution and resonant frequency, based on a characteristic of the one or more passive materials, for the particular spatial energy distribution corresponding to at least one of the one or more optical modes, a preponderant portion of optical energy is distributed apart from the active material, and a thickness of the mode control layer is configured to transversely distribute the preponderant portion of the optical energy apart from the active material and maintain an evanescent field in the active material.
 3. The laser resonator as described in claim 1, wherein the tunable gratings are Vernier grating.
 4. The laser resonator as described in claim 1, wherein the tunable gratings comprise a plurality of uniform Bragg reflectors modulated with a periodic nonuniform sampling function.
 5. The laser resonator as described in claim 4, wherein at least one of: length, width, depth, and period of the modulated Bragg reflectors is varied according to the periodic nonuniform sampling function.
 6. The laser resonator as described in claim 5, wherein the plurality of modulated Bragg reflectors comprises a first Bragg reflector and a second Bragg reflector.
 7. The laser resonator as described in claim 6, wherein the periodic nonuniform sampling function is (sin z)/z and the first and second Bragg reflectors have different sampling periods.
 8. The laser resonator as described in claim 7, wherein the first and second Bragg reflectors are configured to increase a quality factor Q of the laser resonator.
 9. The laser resonator as described in claim 8, wherein the first and second Bragg reflectors are tuned by separate electrical injection currents
 10. The laser resonator as described in claim 8, further comprising a first integrated heater disposed in proximity to the first Bragg reflector, and a second integrated heater disposed in proximity to the second Bragg reflector, the first and second integrated heaters being configured to tune the laser resonator by changing temperatures of the first and second Bragg reflectors.
 11. The laser resonator as described in claim 10, wherein the at least one active material is shaped as a mesa structure and the low loss material extends laterally beyond the mesa structure.
 12. The laser resonator as described in claim 11, wherein the mode control layer comprises silicon dioxide.
 13. The laser resonator as described in claim 11, wherein the active material comprises a III-V material.
 14. The laser resonator as described in claim 13, wherein the low loss material comprises silicon. 